By Pierrette Herzberger-Fofana
Genesis
Joseph de Bologne was born from the union between Georges de Bologne de Saint-George, a wealthy planter, and a young enslaved woman named Anne, of Senegalese origin, nicknamed Nanon. His birth took place under fortunate auspices that foretold a brilliant future.
Indeed, on Christmas Day 1745, Joseph de Bologne, also known as the Chevalier de Saint-George, was born.
The Bologne family had resided in the Caribbean, more precisely in Guadeloupe, since 1645. In January 1740, George de Bologne married Elizabeth Merican and, one year later, acquired a 50-hectare plantation with 60 slaves. He exercised his feudal privilege and abused Nanon, then 17 years old.
On December 16, 1747, following a duel, Georges de Bologne killed his opponent, his cousin Jean Hugues Le Vanier de Saint-Robert. He was forced to flee Guadeloupe to escape prosecution and, above all, hanging. Nevertheless, he was sentenced to death in absentia and his property was confiscated, according to an ordinance dated March 31, 1748.
According to the Code Noir, his slaves were considered “movable property.”
His wife Elizabeth declared her rival Nanon, her son Georges, and a slave named François as her servants in order to spare them from being sold and separated. Joseph arrived in France with his family on January 4, 1749.
Thanks to their connections, the Bologne family obtained a royal pardon from King Louis XV. Georges was able to return to the Caribbean on December 2, 1749. (1)
A privileged childhood
According to Article 9 of the Code Noir, Joseph, who was considered a “mulatto” (2), did not enjoy the status of a free man and was therefore not authorized to bear his father’s noble titles. Nevertheless, his father ensured that he received an education befitting his natural rank. Young Joseph received proper instruction in science, the arts, sports, and foreign languages.
In order to complete his education, his father, Georges de Bologne, decided to send him to France. Joseph landed in Bordeaux accompanied by Elizabeth, his father’s wife. Two years later, his father and mother arrived in Bordeaux and settled in Paris on September 19, 1755. His destiny was about to change completely.
Indeed, the Code Noir stipulated that Nanon, his mother, would be freed as soon as she set foot in mainland France. Georges de Bologne introduced his son into the fashionable salons of French high society. He enrolled him at the fencing academy of Nicolas Texier de La Boëssière, one of the kingdom’s renowned fencing masters. At this boarding school for young aristocrats, students received a complete education in the morning, while afternoons were devoted to fencing, the sport that best symbolized noble status.
Joseph de Bologne learned horseback riding by training at the Tuileries under the guidance of the riding master, Chevalier Dugast. He excelled in every field and quickly attracted attention in high places.
In 1761, he obtained a position as a gendarme in the King’s Guard. This role granted him the noble title denied to him at birth. He was henceforth known as the Chevalier de Saint-George, “the god of arms.” For three months each year, he served His Majesty, while the rest of the time he continued his studies. He studied for six years at La Boëssière’s academy. An accomplished athlete, excellent dancer, and elite horseman, the Chevalier de Bologne inspired the admiration of his biographer Emil F. Smidak, who wrote:
“He was often seen crossing the Seine swimming with only one arm, and in skating, his skill surpassed that of everyone else. In pistol shooting, he rarely missed his target.” (F. Smidak, “Joseph Bologne nommé Chevalier de Saint-George,” quoted by C. Ribbe.)
A master swordsman: the “Chevalière d’Eon”
The Chevalier de Saint-George, a renowned fencer, crossed swords with nearly every great swordsman in Europe. He challenged them all, whether Master Picard of Rouen, the Italian fencer Gian Faldoni, or the Chevalière d’Eon, the cross-dressing fencer and secret agent of the Crown. From this encounter was born a comic opera entitled “La Fille-Garçon”. The Chevalier de Saint-George thus gained fame across the Channel, since the duel with d’Eon took place in London. Around the same time, he also wrote a children’s musical comedy, “Aline et Dupré ou le marchand de Marrons”, first performed on August 9, 1788.
The Chevalier de Saint-George and the Court of Versailles
His passion for music, however, remained his true calling. The Chevalier de Saint-George mastered both the violin and the harpsichord. Under the direction of François-Joseph Gossec, his music teacher, he learned the art of musical composition. In 1769, he became first violinist of the “Concert des Amateurs,” an orchestra founded by Gossec. He then began writing his own scores: sonatas, concertos, symphonies, musical comedies, and more.
In 1773, he succeeded François-Joseph Gossec and, in 1775, became the music director of Queen Marie-Antoinette. He performed several times at the Court of Versailles, where he was considered one of Marie-Antoinette’s favorites. Beginning in 1779, she invited him to make music with her, provoking the jealousy of many courtiers, and violent acts were committed against him. One night, the Chevalier de Saint-George was attacked by men from Versailles who attempted to assassinate him. Yet his fame continued to grow, and his reputation as an elegant dandy, elite horseman, and accomplished dancer made him the most fashionable musician at Court.
Racism in France during the Enlightenment
Considered for the directorship of the Paris Opera, the Chevalier de Saint-George was confronted with the racism of the Court. Indeed, two singers, Sophie Arnould and Rosalie Levasseur, and a dancer, Marie-Madeleine Guimard, refused to accept that a “mulatto” should direct the Opera. They submitted a “placet,” that is, a petition to Queen Marie-Antoinette. They wrote that “their honor and the delicacy of their conscience would never allow them to submit to the orders of a mulatto.”
The Court yielded, and the position remained vacant for a long time. During the Enlightenment, many philosophers contributed to the development of racist thought. Most of them were convinced of Black inferiority. Thus Louis Sébastien Mercier recounts in his “Tableau de Paris” that one day, while accompanying Jean-Jacques Rousseau along the riverbanks, the philosopher burst into uncontrollable laughter upon seeing a Black charcoal worker, exclaiming that the man was well suited to his place and would have no trouble washing himself clean.
Voltaire, regarded as a humanist and champion of tolerance, expressed himself in these terms:
“The black race is as different from ours as the spaniel is from the greyhound […] One may say that their intelligence is not only formed differently from ours, but is far inferior […] The gap separating the ape from the Negro is difficult to grasp.” (Essai sur les mœurs, Geneva, 1755, vol. XVI, pp. 269-279).
David Hume, the English philosopher, wrote:
“Negroes and in general all other species of men are naturally inferior to Whites.” (Treatise of Human Nature, 1837).
Friedrich Hegel, the German philosopher, echoed this sentiment:
“The Black human being as a natural, savage creature, and Africa as a land withdrawn into itself […] a land of childhood which, beyond the day of conscious history, is enveloped in the black color of night.” (Reason in History. Introduction to the Philosophy of History. Paris, UG 10/18, 1965).
The Code Noir
During his travels across the Channel, the Chevalier de Saint-George made contact with English abolitionists and members of Parliament. In France, he met Jacques-Pierre Brissot de Warville, founder of the “Société des Amis des Noirs” (1788), which advocated for the abolition of the slave trade and slavery. The Chevalier de Saint-George campaigned in favor of freedom for all men.
Published by Colbert, minister of Louis XIV, in 1685, the Code Noir, composed of 60 articles, established the legal status of slaves (3). Defined as movable property, slaves faced the death penalty for striking their master (Art. 33), stealing a horse or cow (Art. 35), a third escape attempt (Art. 38), or unauthorized gatherings (Art. 16).
Although mainland France economically benefited from the slave system, 18th-century society increasingly questioned the institution. However, under pressure from planters and slave traders, France enacted discriminatory measures against Blacks living on its territory in 1762.
The colonial planters relied on the Code Noir to support their demands and introduce de facto racial segregation on French soil. They hoped to stem the migration of Blacks toward mainland France. Thus Louis XV ordered that all Blacks and “mulattoes” register with the Admiralty clerk’s office in order to receive identity papers. Nanon went there accompanied by La Boëssière to register her son and spare him such discrimination.
Interracial unions were forbidden for Africans or people of African descent who had arrived on French soil before August 9, 1977.
Now, the environment in which the Chevalier de Saint-George evolved was composed essentially of Europeans. He had virtually no chance of marrying.
The reputation as a seducer attributed to him stemmed more from prejudice, jealousy, and pettiness than from reality, since the racist climate of the era forbade him from any relationship with a White woman, even though he had won the hearts of several ladies, including Queen Marie-Antoinette herself.
The efforts of the Société des Amis des Noirs and the insurrectionary movements in the islands eventually bore fruit. On February 4, 1794, the Convention abolished slavery in the colonies.
The virtuoso
Between 1773 and 1780, the Chevalier de Saint-George composed twelve violin concertos, two collections of quartets, symphonies, and three violin sonatas.
On October 12, 1778, he premiered “La Chasse”, his second musical comedy, which received an enthusiastic reception. The press praised him and the audience applauded him warmly. In 1777, Madame de Montesson, companion of the Duke of Orléans, hired him as director of her private theater at the Palais-Royal. There he presented his third lyrical work, “L’Amant anonyme”, on March 8, 1780. That same year, he wrote the music for “Ernestine”, a three-act comedy with ariettas.
According to writer Claude Ribbe, around 1778, at the height of his career, the Chevalier de Saint-Georges influenced Mozart. The final section of the ballet music “Les petits riens”, written by Mozart and performed by the Académie Royale de Musique, partly reprises a concerto composed a few months earlier by the Chevalier de Saint-Georges (see Le chevalier de Saint-George, un Africain à la cour by Claude Ribbe).
Saint-George associated with the great musicians of his time, including Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The latter refused, in 1778, to perform for the orchestra conducted by the Chevalier de Saint-Georges. Mozart never mentioned him in his “Correspondence,” the collection of his letters from that period.
Saint-George associated with the great musicians of his time, including Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The latter refused, in 1778, to perform for the orchestra conducted by the Chevalier de Saint-Georges. Mozart never mentioned him in his “Correspondence,” the collection of his letters from that period.
Joseph Haydn composed the “Paris Symphonies” (82-87) and “Olympic Symphonies” for Saint-Georges.
In 1781, the “Concert des Amateurs” was dissolved. The Freemasons created a new ensemble, the “Concert de la Loge Olympique.” The Chevalier de Saint-George joined the Grand Orient de France lodge and conducted this orchestra.
In 1781, the “Concert des Amateurs” was dissolved. The Freemasons created a new ensemble, the “Concert de la Loge Olympique.” The Chevalier de Saint-George joined the Grand Orient de France lodge and conducted this orchestra.
He thus became the first Black Freemason in France.
The works and style of the Chevalier de Saint-George
His body of work includes seven operas, more than one hundred concertos, three symphonies, twelve string quartets, and several sonatas.
Opera: “Guillaume tout cœur ou les Amis de village,” comic opera: “La Fille-Garçon”; “Ernestine,” a three-act comedy with ariettas; a children’s musical comedy “Aline et Dupré ou le marchand de Marrons”; his third lyrical work “L’Amant anonyme.” His second musical comedy “La Chasse.”
The music of the Chevalier de Saint-George is soft and light. At times, it is almost melancholic, especially the 11th concerto in G major, opus VII No. 2, and the symphonies in G and D major, opus XI Nos. 1 and 2, which transport the listener to the distant shores of his native island.
The style of the Chevalier de Saint-George belongs to pre-classicism, in which the influences of his era can clearly be detected. Baroque music does not appear in his works.
Saint-George’s political career and the French Revolution
On July 14, 1789, when the Revolution erupted in Paris with the storming of the Bastille, the Chevalier de Saint-George was in Lille. He enlisted in the National Guard, first as a soldier and, one year later, was appointed captain. Although he was brigade commander, he never hesitated to fight alongside his troops. With his “Black Legion,” he repelled the Austrian assault on Lille.
It was in Lille that the Chevalier de Saint-George composed his final opera: Guillaume tout cœur ou les Amis de village.
On August 4, the nobility lost all of its privileges. As a precaution, the Chevalier de Saint-George abandoned the noble particle in his family name.
The “Black Legion,” or Saint-George Legion
By proclaiming equality before the law, the Revolution initiated the process leading to the end of the slave trade. Although the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 concerned only white men (“All men are born free and equal”), it had repercussions on the slave system in the islands, particularly in Saint-Domingue where slave uprisings erupted.
On September 1, 1791, the French Legislative Assembly welcomed Black deputies from Saint-Domingue (today Haiti) who wished to fight for the Revolution’s ideals of equality. It approved the creation of a corps of one thousand “men of color,” a mixed cavalry and infantry unit. On September 7, 1792, Saint-George was appointed colonel and brigade commander of this unit called the “Légion franche des Américains et du Midi,” composed largely of Afro-Caribbeans. This legion was formed in Laon in January 1793. It would go down in history as the “Saint-George Legion.”
The Chevalier de Saint-George appointed his collaborator Alexandre Dumas, father of the author of “The Three Musketeers,” who bore the same name. Like the Chevalier de Saint-George, Alexandre Dumas père was born from the forbidden union of a Black enslaved woman, Césette Dumas, and a ruined nobleman, the Marquis Davy de La Pailleterie.
The “Black Legion” defended the city against the coalition army led by Dumouriez. Dumas and the Chevalier de Saint-George foiled Dumouriez’s plans of treason. He intended to seize Lille and march on Paris.
For a time, the Chevalier de Saint-George was regarded as a hero. After Lille’s victory over the Austrians in April 1792, the Ministry of War removed Blacks from the legion and reassigned them to the colonies to suppress uprisings. The ministry thus put an end to the military careers of General Dumas and all the other Black officers
in the army. The brigade was then renamed the “13th Chasseur Regiment.”
The fall of an idol
But the new regime distrusted aristocrats. Following a denunciation and without any real reason, the Chevalier Saint-George was arrested on November 4, 1793, in Château-Thierry. He was stripped of his command and accused of embezzling money to pay debts. He was imprisoned in Chantilly, then at the Château d’Hondainville in the Oise region. Found innocent, he was released on November 4, 1793. According to historians, he may then have gone to Saint-Domingue to take part in the Haitian revolt.
In the spring of 1797, the Chevalier de Saint-George returned to Paris. He conducted a new orchestra, “Le Cercle de l’Harmonie,” at the Palais-Royal.
On June 10, 1799, he died from a bladder infection. News of his death made newspaper headlines. The public paid vibrant tribute to him. Several posthumous works, including a concerto and a sonata, were published in newspapers.
On June 10, 1799, he died from a bladder infection. News of his death made newspaper headlines. The public paid vibrant tribute to him. Several posthumous works, including a concerto and a sonata, were published in newspapers.
In 1802, Napoleon restored slavery in the Caribbean and Saint-Domingue. A congenital racist, he took drastic measures to erase the memory of the Chevalier de Saint-George from collective consciousness. He banned his music and had his works destroyed. The Chevalier de Saint-Georges fell into complete oblivion until the Romantic era. At the end of the 20th century, renewed interest in him emerged.
Among the measures decreed by Napoleon were the prohibition for “Blacks and people of color” to bear arms (May 29, 1802), restrictions on access to mainland France (July 2, 1802), and, for those already there, “marriage with Whites” (January 8, 1803).
Tributes to Saint-George
During the Romantic era, several authors paid tribute to him, including Balzac, Alexandre Dumas fils, and Édouard de Bully, known as Roger de Beauvoir, who dedicated a novel later adapted for the stage to him.
His birthplace, Basse-Terre, honored him by naming a street after him and erecting a monument in his memory.
Thanks to the efforts of the National Federation of Associations and Groups from Overseas Territories, in December 2001, Rue du Général Antoine-Richepanse (located between the 1st arrondissement on the even-numbered side and the 8th on the odd-numbered side) was renamed. It became Rue du Chevalier de Saint-George. Richepanse was the general who restored slavery in Guadeloupe under Bonaparte’s orders.
TV5 Monde broadcast the documentary “Le Mozart Noir : rétablir une Légende” in Quebec and France on April 10, 2003. Writer and historian Claude Ribbe wrote a performance dedicated to the Chevalier de Saint-George, “Un Noir à la Cour de Versailles,” staged by Bartabas. It was performed in Versailles before 50,000 spectators. The performance was filmed and presented to French-speaking African audiences on January 2, 2007, under the title “Un Noir à la Cour de Versailles.”
Numerous associations from the French Overseas Departments and Regions continue to conduct research on the life and work of the Chevalier de Saint-George.
Conclusion
Joseph Bologne, Chevalier de Saint-George, a gifted figure described as “Afro-classical” by Claude Ribbe, left a lasting mark on his era.
His music has endured through time, despite all the hardships of life, and reaches us today in all its purity.
Date: December 25, 1745 – June 10, 1799
Link: [http://saint-george.phpnet.org/](http://saint-george.phpnet.org/)
