Icon of freedom and heroine of the struggle against racial discrimination.
Rosa Parks, the emblematic figure of the protest movement against racial segregation, passed away at the age of 92 in Detroit (United States). Rosa Parks’ exemplary courage commands our respect. On her own, she changed the course of History in America and throughout the world. Yet, nothing seemed to predestine her to become the icon of civil rights in America and the “Mother” of the movement that would lead to the abolition of racial segregation in America. This admirable woman played an undeniable role in the history of human freedom.
On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery (Alabama), Rosa Parks had the courage to say NO to the racial segregation that plagued the United States. She refused to obey the bus driver’s order to give up her seat to a white man and move to the back of the bus. The three other Black passengers present gave up their seats to the white passengers. Rosa Parks remained firm and refused to stand up. Her refusal, which constituted a violation of the racist regulations of this southern American state, would trigger the irreversible process of desegregation. To the police officer who came to arrest her, she asked the following question:
“Why all these persecutions?”
He replied:
“I do not know, but the law is the law, and I am arresting you.”
Rosa Parks was arrested by the police and sentenced to pay a 14-dollar fine. She was charged with public disorder and violation of local laws. Deep inside, this 42-year-old seamstress knew that, from that day onward, “it was the very last time that I would ever ride in humiliation of this kind.”
Rosa Parks was allowed to make a phone call. She took the opportunity to contact E.D. Nixon, a notable member of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Nixon was furious, understandably so, but he also realized that Mrs. Parks could become the perfect symbol of the injustice raging in the South. Nixon called a liberal white lawyer, Clifford Durr, who agreed to defend Mrs. Parks. After consulting with the lawyer, her husband, and her mother, Rosa Parks agreed to challenge in court the segregation law that had led to her arrest.
The Black community considered this arrest a scandal, as they had grown weary of this constant humiliation and segregation in public transportation. In her autobiography, Rosa Parks corrected one of the legends spread about her claiming that she was simply tired:
“People always say that I refused to give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn’t true. I was not physically tired, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. It was not because my feet hurt or because I was unable to move them. No, the pain I felt was not in my feet, but in my heart as a human being. My fatigue was moral fatigue. I was tired of always obeying the orders of white people without protest. Above all, I was tired of having to surrender.”
Her life
“There is no law that requires us to suffer.” Leona MacCauley, Rosa Parks’ mother
Rosa Louise Mac Cauley was born on February 4 in Tuskegee, Alabama, daughter of James Mac Cauley, a carpenter, and Leona Mac Cauley, a teacher. After her parents divorced, she lived with her mother and brother on her grandparents’ farm. Her grandparents were members of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. In her autobiography, she recounts that during her childhood, her grandfather stood guard in front of the farm with a rifle because the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) paraded through the streets of Alabama, terrorizing Black people, lynching them, and burning their homes. The Ku Klux Klan twice burned down the school she attended, the “Montgomery Industrial School,” founded by white Northerners for Black children.
Her grandfather instilled in her principles of social justice, dignity, and pride in her origins, leaving her with the following guiding principle:
“Never accept unjust treatment, no matter where it comes from, and never give up in the face of injustice.”
Throughout her life, she was confronted with everyday racism. In her autobiography, she mentions a seemingly trivial fact that, in reality, deeply wounds a child’s soul: in town, there were even fountains reserved for white people and others for Black people:
“As a child, I thought the water from the white people’s fountains tasted better than the water from the Black people’s fountains.”
Rosa Parks attended a primary school reserved for African Americans that only operated five months a year. In 1924, at the age of 11, her mother sent her to the “Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery” to continue her studies. Five years later, she was forced to leave school to care for her sick grandmother and mother. Rosa felt deep respect and filial love for her mother, a teacher who taught her to be proud of being a Black woman.
“Be proud of who you are! Become someone who will be respected by others and who will respect them as well.”
In 1932, Rosa Mac Cauley married Raymond Parks, a barber and activist in the civil rights movement. He encouraged her to continue her secondary education, which she completed in 1934. At that time, her husband Raymond was deeply involved in raising money to support a group of young Black men, the “Scottsboro Boys,” who had been falsely accused of raping two white women. Despite the segregationist Jim Crow laws, they were both members of the “Voter’s League” (1940), which fought to secure voting rights for their Black brothers and sisters:
“I have witnessed many dramatic events in my life. Time and again, I saw racial segregation supported by the law, and like many others, I suffered terribly because of it.”
Around this time, Rosa Parks found employment at the Maxwell Air Force Base, a federal institution where her political awareness deepened. She wrote in her autobiography:
“One could say that Maxwell Air Force Base opened my eyes.”
In December 1943, the Parks became members of the American Civil Rights Movement and were active in the Alabama branch of the “National Association for the Advancement of Colored People” (NAACP), the major movement fighting for Black civil rights. This group worked to dismantle racial barriers in education and public transportation.
From 1930 to 1955, she worked as a seamstress. In 1943, she was appointed secretary of the NAACP. Recalling that period, she wrote in her autobiography:
“I was the only woman there, and they needed a secretary, and I was too timid to say no.”
From 1965 until her retirement in 1988, she worked as an assistant to African American congressman John Conyers.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott. “We shall overcome”
“She sat down so that we could stand up.” Reverend Jesse Jackson
The nonviolent bus boycott movement was a challenge directed against the so-called democratic power. The determination of a single person generated a vast historical bus strike movement. According to segregation laws then in force, the first four rows of buses were reserved for white people. Although Black passengers represented 75% of the riders, they were required to sit at the back. They boarded at the front to pay the 10-cent fare and then had to get off and re-enter through the rear door to reach the section reserved for them, so that they would not pass through the white section. Black passengers could sit in the middle section as long as no white person claimed the seat. In that case, they had to give up their seats and move to the back of the bus or get off entirely. On that December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks recognized the same driver who had thrown her off a bus 12 years earlier because she had refused to exit and re-enter through the rear door as local regulations required.
The 50 leaders of the African American community, under the leadership of the young pastor Dr. Martin Luther King, met at the “Dexter Avenue Baptist Church” to discuss what measures should be taken following Rosa Parks’ arrest. They created the “Montgomery Improvement Association” and elected Dr. Martin Luther King as president. This mass mobilization propelled the apostle of nonviolence, Dr. Martin Luther King, onto the front stage of American politics. In doing so, he gave concrete expression to his theory of nonviolence, which would define his political action. The Association called for a bus boycott beginning Monday, December 5, 1955. Thirty-five thousand leaflets were distributed throughout the Black community. The slogan was relayed by the Montgomery Advertiser, the local Black newspaper. Churches spread the message during religious services. The boycott began and was followed 100%. The African American community showed tremendous solidarity: unjust arrests, bomb attacks, shootings, threatening late-night phone calls, blackmail threats, illegal dismissals, media manipulation—nothing stopped the determination of the protesters. Under the scorching summer sun or the icy winter wind, most African Americans walked to work, to school, and to every destination.
“I will walk today so that my grandchildren can ride the bus tomorrow without being humiliated.”
Taxis driven by Black drivers charged the same 10-cent fare as the buses. Some white people joined the movement, sometimes out of conviction and ideology, sometimes simply because the boycott affected their daily lives. They needed their domestic workers to arrive on time. Some employers even drove them from their homes. Bus service was completely paralyzed because African Americans made up the majority of public transportation users. Dozens of buses were taken out of service. Bankruptcy threatened the transportation company. The international press covered the movement extensively. The world’s eyes were fixed on America. Unease spread across the country. Gradually, funds, shoes, and clothing poured in from everywhere to support the walkers. Organizers established an alternative transportation system. The Ku Klux Klan did not remain inactive. It unleashed extreme violence. Lawyer Edgar Nixon’s home was bombed. The same happened to Martin Luther King’s home while his wife Coretta Scott King and their two-month-old baby were inside. Black communities lived in fear of these terrorists. Yet they did not yield to government pressure or to their detractors. Martin Luther King urged the strikers not to respond with violence and to continue defending their demands:
1. That white and Black people be allowed to sit wherever they wished on buses
2. That drivers show courtesy to all passengers
3. That Black drivers be hired
The boycott lasted 380 days, a little more than a year, until the segregation law governing buses was abolished. The perseverance of Black Americans resulted in total victory. On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court delivered its verdict:
“Racial segregation on buses in Montgomery is a violation of the Constitution.”
The Court struck down Alabama’s racist bus laws because they contradicted the democratic principles of the Constitution. They were therefore unconstitutional and illegal.
On December 20, 1956, the Supreme Court forced the transportation company to enforce the ruling. The boycott ended the following day, but violence intensified against the homes of organizers and churches attended by Black people. Repression fell heavily on the Parks family and their relatives. Many lost their jobs or were harassed by white people. In 1957, Rosa Parks decided to move to Detroit, Michigan. She had difficulty finding employment. Eventually, she was hired in 1965 by John Conyers, an African American Democrat and member of the U.S. House of Representatives. She remained his assistant until her retirement in 1988. Rosa Parks stayed active within the NAACP and the “Southern Christian Leadership Conference” (SCLC).
Although segregation was abolished in Alabama, it still existed on interstate buses. In 1961, a group of young activists created the “Freedom Ride” protest movement to end racial discrimination on interstate buses. After only a few days of operation, one of the Freedom Riders’ buses arrived in Alabama. They were greeted by the Ku Klux Klan. The young activists were dragged out, beaten, and the bus was set on fire. The KKK members were never convicted. In 1964, the segregationist Jim Crow laws were finally repealed in the United States with the “Civil Rights Act,” which prohibited all forms of segregation in public places, and in 1965 with the “Voting Rights Act,” which abolished literacy tests and taxes required to vote in the United States.
The Rosa and Raymond Parks Foundation
After her husband’s death in 1987, Rosa Parks created the “Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development.” The purpose of this institute was to motivate and guide young people so they could achieve their full potential, while also educating more people about the issues shaping the future of the world. Mrs. Parks told an Ebony reporter that “There are too many young people who do not continue school and who fail to take advantage of the opportunities available to them.” The Rosa and Raymond Parks Foundation offers teenagers from different ethnic backgrounds a program called “Paths to Freedom,” encouraging them to learn about their cultural heritage, the history of the civil rights movement, and a culture of peace. In 1992, Rosa Parks published a children’s book entitled “Rosa Parks: My Story.” It is a chronological account of her life up to that fateful day in 1955 when she refused to stand so that a white man could sit in her seat on the bus. This book serves as a historical reminder teaching children that the freedoms they enjoy today were won through struggle.
Honorary distinctions
Numerous honorary distinctions were awarded to her by universities and institutions alike. In 1990, the “Kennedy Center” in Washington awarded her a prize on the occasion of her seventy-seventh birthday. President C. Delores Tucker praised Rosa Parks’ “beautiful qualities,” namely “her dignity and her unwavering faith that with God, all things are possible.” As usual, Mrs. Parks accepted the praise with humility. To this day, she never sought personal glory from her role in the civil rights movement. When an Ebony reporter asked her to reveal the secret of her positive attitude, she replied:
“I find that if I think too much about my own problems and the fact that things do not always happen the way I would like, I make no progress. But if I look around me and see what I can do, then I keep moving forward.”
In 1996, Rosa Parks received the “Presidential Medal of Freedom” from Bill Clinton, a major American civilian distinction. The President declared to Jet magazine:
“When she sat down on that bus, she stood up for the American ideals of equality and justice, and she demanded that we all do the same.”
In 1998, the “First International Freedom Conductor Award” was awarded to her by the “National Underground Railroad Freedom Center.” One year later, she received the “Detroit-Windsor International Freedom Festival” award for her contribution to the cause of freedom and peace. PR Newswire reported that, during the ceremony, Detroit Mayor Dennis Archer emphasized:
“Her dignity and grace inspired generations of freedom advocates and defenders of liberty.”
In 1999, during a ceremony presided over by President Clinton, the government awarded her the “U.S. Congressional Gold Medal of Honor,” the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress. On that occasion, Mrs. Parks declared:
“This medal represents the encouragement given to all of us to continue until we all have equal rights.”
And President Clinton stated:
“In many ways, Rosa Parks allowed America to become what our founding fathers dreamed it could be.”
The first recipient of this medal was George Washington, the first president of the United States. That same year, Time magazine included her among the 100 most influential personalities of the 20th century. In September 1999, Mrs. Parks was honored by the “Alabama Academy of Honor,” an organization recognizing Alabama citizens for their contributions to the state. Later that same year, Alabama Governor Donald Siegelman presented her with the first Governor’s Medal of Honor for Extraordinary Courage. In December 2000, she was honored once again when Troy State University in Montgomery (Alabama) named a library and museum after her. A street and a school also bear her name in Detroit.
Rosa Parks dedicated her life to the cause of universal human rights and truly embodied love for humanity and freedom. Through her quiet courage, Rosa Parks symbolizes the very essence of nonviolent protest, for she endured death threats and persisted in advocating the simple and fundamental lessons she taught the nation—lessons from which the nation benefited immensely. She restored dignity to millions of human beings denied their humanity and oppressed because of the color of their skin. Furthermore, Rosa Parks, who had lived in the state of Michigan since 1957, became a living icon of freedom in America and throughout the world. She participated in every march for freedom, including the 1963 March on Washington, the 1965 march to Montgomery, and the Million Man March in 1995.
Tribute to Mrs. Parks
Martin Luther King Jr., Nobel Peace Prize laureate, paid tribute to Rosa Parks’ dignity when he dedicated his book “Marching to Freedom” to her.
During a ceremony held in her honor, she was presented with an excerpt from the poem “Dawn in Alabama,” written by the great Black poet Hughes:
“For white hands and black hands
For brown hands and yellow hands
For red hands too
For everyone,
Let us compose a gentle melody,
And let our fingers touch
As the dew falls,
Naturally.
We shall stand beside one another,
In this musical dawn
And I shall then become the composer
Of the symphony of dawn in Alabama.”
Mrs. Parks was deeply moved. It was her favorite poem, one she read over and over again.
Date: February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005
Link: [http://www.rosaparkslegacy.com/about-us](http://www.rosaparkslegacy.com/about-us)
[http://www.rosaparksscholarshipfoundation.org/Scholarship.htm](http://www.rosaparksscholarshipfoundation.org/Scholarship.htm)
