Around 300 BCE, the Kingdom of Kush permanently moved its royal necropolis from Napata to Meroë. This change of site was probably due to the emergence of a new dynasty originating from the south. It marked the beginning of the third Kingdom of Kush, known as the Kingdom of Meroë. Some of the writings concerning the Kushites of this period are recorded in their own language, conventionally called Meroitic. As this language is still not well understood, this period remains only partially known to us.
1. The Beginnings of the Dynasty
The first ruler of the Kingdom of Meroë may have been Arqamaniqo (possibly called Ergamenes in Greek). His rise to power may have occurred through violence and usurpation. However, the emergence of this new dynasty from southern Kush, at the expense of the north, does not seem to have led to excessive regionalism or an over-centralization of power.
At that time, Lower Nubia was, like Egypt, under the authority of the Ptolemaic dynasty, named after its founder, the famous general of Alexander the Great. Ptolemaic Egypt and Kush then maintained prosperous trade relations involving exotic products. It was in this context that the Kushites established a new writing system, today known as the Meroitic script. The oldest name attested in this language is that of Queen Shanadakheto, although it appears to have been written at a much later date.
Reproduction of a relief from the funerary chapel of Shanadakheto
It was perhaps under the reign of her successor, Tanyidamani, that the Meroitic script truly emerged. This period also saw the appearance of the tradition of using coronation names in the Kushite language.
Around 200 BCE, however, relations between Kush and Ptolemaic Egypt became significantly more strained. Southern Egyptians, under the authority of a certain Hor Wennofer, rebelled against Egyptian rule with the support of Kush. Hor Wennofer managed to capture Thebes in 205 BCE.
At the same time, the Kushites reoccupied Lower Nubia. During this period, the Kushite rulers Arkamani and Adikhalamani focused on construction projects and on integrating, within religious texts, representations emphasizing the unity of Lower Nubia and Kush.
The Ptolemies eventually defeated the Thebans in 186 BCE and re-established their control over Middle and Upper Egypt, as well as over Lower Nubia. An Egyptian inscription written after the incident refers to Kush as “the land of the enemies of Horus and Ra.” During the reigns of Arkamani and Adikhalamani, commercial contacts between Egypt and Kush declined.
Native Egyptian revolts against Ptolemaic power nevertheless continued. Gradually, the Ptolemies withdrew from Lower Nubia at the beginning of the 1st century BCE. It was likely at this time that the Kushites regained control of the region. They installed a governor there, the peseto (equivalent to the Egyptian viceroy of Nubia). The first peseto attested is Tasemerese.
At this time, Kush was involved in trade with the Mediterranean world, including gold, slaves, elephants, and other tropical products.
Conflict with Rome
In 30 BCE, the future Roman emperor Augustus conquered Ptolemaic Egypt, ruled by Cleopatra and Mark Antony. Shortly thereafter, a new revolt broke out in Upper Egypt with the support of the Kushites, but it was quickly suppressed by the Romans, who installed a representative to govern the newly conquered Lower Nubia.
In 25 BCE, a Roman expedition against Arabia and Kush was planned. While the prefect of Egypt was dispatched to Arabia with his troops, the Kushites, under the leadership of King Teriteqas and then a Candace, probably Amanirenas, took advantage of the situation and attacked first. They plundered several cities in Upper Egypt and captured prisoners and trophies, the most famous of which was a statue of Augustus.
That same year, an army led by the new prefect, Gaius Petronius, defeated the Kushites at the Battle of Dakka and established a fortress at Pedeme (Primis in Latin) in Lower Nubia.
The Kushites rebelled again and marched toward the fortress of Pedeme. Petronius arrived first, and the two sides likely entered into peace negotiations there.
In 20/21 CE, Augustus signed the Treaty of Samos, which was largely favorable to the Kushites. They would no longer pay taxes to the Romans, would retain their independence, but would see the northern border of their kingdom retreat to Hiera Sycaminos / Maharraqa.
Queen Amanirenas is mentioned in several Kushite documents, one of which may refer to the conflict with Rome. She reportedly demonstrated exceptional courage in her war against Rome and was described as possessing “courage beyond her sex.”
Her son Akinidad, frequently mentioned alongside his mother in monuments, never ascended the throne. He bore the titles of pqr (perhaps “prince”) and peseto, that is, viceroy. He also distinguished himself through numerous construction projects and representations in which he is curiously depicted as a king.
Amanishakheto succeeded Amanirenas. The prosperity of her reign is evidenced by the richness of her royal treasure, currently exhibited in Germany. She was followed on the throne by another woman, Nawidemak. It has been suggested that this succession of three women to the Kushite throne was the result of dynastic turmoil.
She was followed on the throne by another woman, Nawidemak. It has been suggested that this succession of three women to the throne of Kush was the result of dynastic turmoil.
The reign of the following ruler, Amanikhabale, appears to have been prosperous and devoted to restoration works both in the south and the north of the kingdom.
In the first half of the 1st century CE, Meroë witnessed the apogee of pharaonic civilization. This period is marked by the reign of Natakamani, his co-regent Amanitore (mother or wife), and the crown prince Arkhatani.
This period saw the creation, expansion, and restoration of temples, as well as the founding of a palace drawing in particular on Egyptian influences. Under their regency, the use of Egyptian coronation names and the use of Egyptian hieroglyphs for more diverse purposes were also reintroduced. These influences were probably part of a desire for renewal, with reference to the Kushite period of the Kingdom of Napata.
Shortly after their reign, Amanakhareqem ascended the throne. His reign is known in particular through ram statues and a temple bearing his name. The following century constitutes something of a dark period in the history of Kush.
Aside from a few royal names found here and there, the reigns of the qore of this period are poorly known. The most significant documentation instead comes from Lower Nubia, which was at that time occupied by the Kushites. Inscriptions in Meroitic script have been found in temples of Lower Nubia from this period. They inform us about many aspects of life in this region, especially family life.
The 3rd century CE saw the decline of the Kingdom of Kush. Under pressure from the Blemmyes, ancestors of the modern Beja, the Romans seem to have lost control of Lower Nubia and officially established Egypt’s southern frontier at Aswan, to the benefit of the Kushites or the Nobades.
Representation of a Noba captive (© Trustees of the British Museum)
In any case, the Kushite peseto had great difficulty managing the assaults of the Blemmyes and the Nobades. They gradually ceded control of Lower Nubia to them.
The last royal pyramid was built in the middle of the 4th century. The royal necropolis, in parallel with royal power, split into two sites: to the south near Meroë and to the north, at the site of Qustul.
The last inscription in Meroitic script dates to around 420 CE. It was written in the name of a certain Kharamadoye, who presents himself as qore (“king”) but was probably a Nobade. This population, one of the ancestral groups of the modern Nubians who had recently arrived from the Kordofan region, had shortly before conquered Kushite territory.
Around 350 CE, the king of Aksum (modern Ethiopia), Ezana, mentions on two stelae that he fought victoriously against the Noba (an apparently generic term for the ancestors of modern Nubians), crossing the territory of the Kasou (a term referring to Kush). This was probably a reference to an Aksumite response to an attempted invasion of their kingdom by Nubians who had invaded Kush.
This marked the beginning of the end of the Kingdom of Kush, whose cultures, languages, and populations would endure but gradually be assimilated into those of their former Nubian enemies.
Culture and Society of the Kingdom of Meroë
The Kingdom of Napata is often distinguished from that of Meroë, not only because of the transfer of the royal necropolis from the former to the latter, but also due to the stronger influence of indigenous Kushite culture at Meroë than at Napata.
This influence is first evident in the creation, around 100 CE, of an indigenous writing system inspired by Egyptian hieroglyphs, which transcribed not Egyptian but the Kushite language. It is an alpha-syllabary, meaning a script that uses both signs representing syllables and signs representing sounds.
The imprint of indigenous Kushite culture is also evident in the re-emergence of native gods in the royal pantheon. Among them is Apede (also called Apedemak), a warrior and creator god with a lion’s head;
Amesemi, his consort, a woman with features more characteristic of Kushite women: short, tightly curled hair, corpulence, scarifications, and so on.
The god Shebo (or Sebioumeker), whose role was likely similar to that of the god Osiris, with whom he may have been associated in earlier Egyptian texts.
The role of the god Aresnouphis, probably originating from non-Kushite Nubian tribes, appears to have been similar to that of Shebo in his association with royalty, hunting, and warfare.
The gods Sebioumeker, Amon, and Aresnouphis at Musawwarat es-Sufra (© Sudanarchäologischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin / Humboldt University)
A sun god called Mash was also an integral part of the pantheon.
Egyptian-origin gods, however, continued to hold an important place in the Kushite pantheon. The Kushite god Amon, a fusion of an indigenous deity and the Egyptian god Amon, known since the Egyptian colonization, appears to have remained the god of the royal dynasty.
Other Egyptian gods also appear to have continued to be worshiped by the Kushites: this is the case for Isis and Osiris, pronounced Wosh and Asore in their language, Horus, pronounced Ar, and so on.
Beyond the Egyptian influence inherited from the colonization of Kush, a Hellenistic influence was also transmitted to Kush through Ptolemaic Egypt. King Arqamaniqo, in particular, is said to have been an enthusiast of this culture. This influence is evident especially in the arts, architecture, and craftsmanship.
The ruler, called a ‘qore’ in the Kushite language, was generally a man.
However, between the mid-2nd and 1st centuries BCE, four women ascended the throne: they bore the title of ‘Candaces,’ a word meaning ‘sister,’ written in the texts as kdke or ktke. They were Shanadakheto, Amanirenas, Amanishakheto, and Nawidemak. In addition to being queens, they also held the title of qore, “sovereign.” It appears that their accession to the throne needed to be legitimized by a prince. Their rise to power was likely the result of a long process of political empowerment already underway during the Kingdom of Napata.
The ideal appearance for Kushite women of power seems to have been that of opulent, even obese, women. This cultural trait also appears to have existed in Predynastic Egypt and in the Land of Punt (ancient Eritrea).
Outside of this particular case, Kushite women during the Meroë period do not appear to have held positions of significance within society. Kushite women mentioned in local texts are referenced in relation to their lineage or connection to a man holding an important political office.
Currency apparently did not exist in Kush during the Meroë period, with trade conducted through barter. Exchanges, based on the export of African tropical products to North Africa and Eurasia, were entirely controlled by the royal authority. Gradually, however, a competing supplier of tropical goods emerged in the form of the Kingdom of Aksum, which increasingly became the primary supplier for the Roman Empire. This economic rise of Aksum, along with its military ascension, likely contributed to the fall of the Kingdom of Kush.
